Mohammed Siddik Makki
The modern Sudan we know today has essenced from ath-Thawra al-Mahdiyya, or the Mahdist revolution led Muhammad Ahmad bin Abd Allah, who had proclaimed himself the “Mahdi” of Islam (the “Guided One”), against the forces of the Khedivate of Egypt, in 1885, and later against Britain. Eighteen years of war against the Mahdiyya which resulted in the nominally joint-rule state of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan (1899–1956), ended with the de facto control of Britain over the Sudan. The Sudanese launched several unsuccessful invasions of their neighbours, expanding the scale of the conflict to include not only Britain and Egypt but also the Italian Empire, the Congo Free State and the Ethiopian Empire.” (Mahdist War, 2023).
“Egypt agreed to share sovereignty over Sudan with the United Kingdom as a condominium. In effect, Sudan was governed as a British possession.
The Egyptian revolution of 1952 toppled the monarchy and demanded the withdrawal of British forces from all of Egypt and Sudan. Under Egyptian and Sudanese pressure, the United Kingdom agreed to Egypt’s demand for both governments to terminate their shared sovereignty over Sudan and to grant Sudan independence.”
The more ethnic, cultural, and religious identity of the Sudanese people was formed when the Jaafar Nimeiry regime enforced Sharia laws in the country. Research shows that the move “exacerbated the rift between the Islamic North, the seat of the government, and the animists and Christians in the South. Differences in language, religion, and political power erupted in a civil war between government forces, influenced by the National Islamic Front (NIF), and the southern rebels, whose most influential faction was the Sudan People’s Liberation Army (SPLA), which eventually led to the independence of South Sudan in 2011. Between 1989 and 2019, Sudan experienced a 30-year-long military dictatorship of Omar al-Bashir, whose regime was responsible for widespread human rights abuses, including torture, persecution of minorities, allegations of sponsoring global terrorism, and ethnic genocide committed during the War in Darfur region between 2003 and 2020. The war claimed around 300,000 to 400,000 lives. Protests erupted in 2018, demanding Bashir’s resignation, which resulted in a coup d’état on 11 April 2019 and Bashir’s imprisonment”.
This was followed by the emergence of the Rapid Support Forces (RSF) in the political scene of the Sudan. RSF is a militia created and funded by Al Bashir regime to funnel the rebels in Darfur and extract natural resources like gold and other minerals. The RSF is currently involved in armed conflict with the Sudanese Armed Forces in the capital Khartoum, and many other capitals of regional states in an attempt to overthrow the SAF and legitimize itself as the leading military pioneer alongside the undermined civilian government.
The ethnic wars
The most prominent Sudanese war of recent memory is in the region of West Kordofan and Darfur. In 2008, a conflict broke out between the Misseriya and Rizeigat tribes in South Darfur, Sudan. The source of the dispute was a disagreement over land ownership and grazing rights, which had been an ongoing issue for a number of years. The Misseriya, who are primarily nomadic cattle herders, claimed that the Rizeigat tribe had encroached on their grazing lands, while the Rizeigat, who are mainly farmers, argued that they had settled on the land and therefore had a right to use it. The conflict turned violent in February of that year, resulting in approximately 70 deaths and the displacement of thousands of individuals. Both sides employed various weapons, including guns and spears, and civilians, including women and children, were targeted in vicious attacks.
The following year, On June 12, 2009, an armed confrontation took place in South Sudan, known as the 2009 Sobat River ambush, involving Jikany Nuer tribesmen and the Sudanese People’s Liberation Army (SPLA). The SPLA was guarding a United Nations (UN) aid convoy moving along the Sobat River when it was attacked by the Jikany Nuer tribesmen.
People wait with their luggage at a bus stop in southern Khartoum on Monday as fighting continues between Sudan’s army and the paramilitary forces.
The Jikany Nuer reportedly viewed the SPLA’s presence in their area with hostility, suspecting that the SPLA was supporting rival factions within their tribe. The Jikany Nuer fighters, armed with weapons like AK-47 rifles, RPGs, and machine guns, assaulted the SPLA convoy in a fierce battle.
The encounter was violent and deadly, resulting in significant losses on both sides. Reports indicate that about 40 SPLA soldiers and 20 Jikany Nuer fighters were killed, and many more were wounded. The UN aid convoy was also targeted, resulting in damage and destruction of several vehicles.
This battle brought to the fore the persisting ethnic tensions, political disagreements, and competition for resources that have fueled conflicts in South Sudan. The SPLA has been involved in multiple confrontations throughout the country’s history, including the lengthy civil war between Sudan’s north and south. The Jikany Nuer, like many other tribes in South Sudan have been fighting over resources, land, and political power.
The crisis did not stop in the region. Just two months later, 180 people of the Nuer tribe were killed while fishing for food by Murle fighters. The following year saw 184 people die in clashes between the Nuer and Dinka tribes near that region. Later that year, in South Kordofan, 1000 passengers inside cars located at the state of South Kordofan were taken hostage while they were driving to attend the Southern Sudanese Independence referendum. The Messiria had declared that they will maintain their captivity of the hostages until Unity State of South Sudan honors its pledge of blood money. This pledge was made after three Messiria shepherds were killed earlier in the year by tribes from the southern part of the country.
The year 2011 was very active in terms of political unrest and decision making, it saw eight months of constant war throughout the year which tragically claimed 670 lives and displaced tens of thousands of people, The dawn of the year saw the Sudanese People’s Liberation Army of the southern region finally achieve its goal of declaring the independence of South Sudan.
Implications
Under the 30-year-long military dictatorship of Omar al-Bashir, Sudan was an epicenter of ethnic genocide. The regime, which was in power from 1989 to 2019, was accountable for egregious human rights violations such as torture, mistreatment of minorities, accusations of supporting worldwide terrorism, and perpetrating ethnic cleansing through its engagement in the Darfur War, spanning from 2003 to 2020. According to estimates, this regime’s actions resulted in the loss of approximately 300,000 to 400,000 lives. In 2018, demonstrations began demanding the immediate resignation of President Bashir, ultimately leading to a coup on April 11, 2019, and his subsequent incarceration. This followed the rise of the Civilian Transitional Government which tried to enforce its power along with the Sudan Armed Forces, and the presence of the Rapid Support Forces made up of various African nomadic tribes put together by Bashir to engage in the Darfur war for decades.
Unfortunately, three years later what followed was even more tragedy as armed conflict between rival factions of the military government of Sudan began on 15 April 2023. It started when clashes broke out in western Sudan, in the capital city of Khartoum, and in the Darfur region. As of 25 April, at least 559 people have been killed and more than 4,000 others had been injured. The fighting began with attacks by the paramilitary Rapid Support Forces (RSF) on key government sites. Airstrikes, artillery, and gunfire were reported across Sudan including in Khartoum. As of 23 April 2023, both the RSF leader Mohamed Hamdan “Hemedti” Dagalo and Sudan’s de facto leader and army chief Abdel Fattah al-Burhan claimed control of several key government sites, including the general military headquarters, the Presidential Palace, Khartoum International Airport, Burhan’s official residence, and the SNBC headquarters.”
Mohammed Siddik Makki, College of post graduate studies, MA. in Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Minnesota State University, USA.
Mohammed Siddik Makki, College of post graduate studies, MA. in Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Minnesota State University, USA.
